Approaches to anthropology

As a complex discipline Anthropology has manifold approaches and divisions. Anthropology is often defined as being holistic and based on a four field approach. The four fields are Biological or physical anthropology, Socio-cultural anthropology, Linguistic anthropology and Archeology. A further type of Anthropology - Applied anthropology can be added making the four field ' five filed'.

Anthropology emerged from Europe. In the long run it spread to America and Asia. American Anthropology owes its origin to extraordinary contributions of various scholars like Franz Boas, Lewis Henry Morgan etc. Scholar viz Kroeber, Robert Redfield, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, lewis Oscar, Julian Steward etc. Early European Anthropologist like E.B. Taylor, James Frazer, henry James Maine and Herbert Spencer were evolutionist and they contributed for the development of anthropology. In the Asian context anthropology flourished is Colonial India, China, Japan. In Nepal the foreign missionaries played a vital role in the development of anthropology.

Anthropology

Historical development of anthropology

The word anthropology is drived from two Greek words anthrops meaning man and logos or logia meaning study of humanity or science. Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, and the humanities. Enthnography is both one of its prmary ethods and the text that is written as a result of the practice of anthropology and its elements. The meaning of Anthropology is the toal or holistic study of human being. Being the holistic study of human being, it studies all the aspects of human being e.g. physical, social, cultural etc.

Dictatorship

A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the government is ruled by an individual, the dictator. It has three possible meanings:

1.A Roman dictator was a political office of the Roman Republic. Roman dictators were allocated absolute power during times of emergency. Their power was originally neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such dictatorships after the beginning of the 2nd century BC, and later dictators such as Sulla and the Roman Emperors exercised power much more personally and arbitrarily.

2.A government controlled by one person or a small group of people.

3.In contemporary usage, dictatorship refers to an autocratic form of absolute rule by leadership unrestricted by law, constitutions, or other social and political factors within the state.

Among the most extreme examples of a dictatorship in recent history was Germany from 1933 to 1945. During this period, Germany was under the dictatorial rule of Adolf Hitler.

In the twentieth century, hereditary dictatorship has become a common phenomenon.

For some scholars, dictatorship is a form of government that has the power to govern without consent of those being governed, while totalitarianism describes a state that regulates nearly every aspect of public and private behavior of the people. In other words, dictatorship concerns the source of the governing power (where the power comes from) and totalitarianism concerns the scope of the governing power (what is the government). In this sense, dictatorship (government without people's consent) is a contrast to democracy (government whose power comes from people) and totalitarianism (government controls every aspect of people's life) opposes pluralism (government allows multiple lifestyles and opinions). Though the definitions of the terms differ, they are related in reality as most of the dictatorship states tend to show totalitarian characteristics. When governments' power does not come from the people, their power is not limited and tend to expand their scope of power to control every aspect of people's life.

Adolf Hitler

Adolf Hitler (German pronunciation: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ]; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated NSDAP), commonly known as the Nazi Party. He was the totalitarian leader of Germany from 1933 to 1945, serving as chancellor from 1933 to 1945 and as head of state (Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945.

A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the Nazi Party (DAP) in 1919 and became leader of NSDAP in 1921. Following his imprisonment after a failed coup in Bavaria in 1923, he gained support by promoting German nationalism, anti-semitism, anti-capitalism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and propaganda. He was appointed chancellor in 1933, and quickly transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideals of national socialism.

Hitler ultimately wanted to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in Europe. To achieve this, he pursued a foreign policy with the declared goal of seizing Lebensraum ("living space") for the Aryan people; directing the resources of the state towards this goal. This included the rearmament of Germany, which culminated in 1939 when the Wehrmacht invaded Poland. In response, the United Kingdom and France declared war against Germany, leading to the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe.

Within three years, Germany and the Axis powers had occupied most of Europe, and most of Northern Africa, East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. However, with the reversal of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, the Allies gained the upper hand from 1942 onwards. By 1945, Allied armies had invaded German-held Europe from all sides. Nazi forces engaged in numerous violent acts during the war, including the systematic murder of as many as 17 million civilians, an estimated six million of whom were Jews targeted in a genocide known as the Holocaust.

In the final days of the war, at the fall of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress Eva Braun and, to avoid capture by Soviet forces less than two days later, the two committed suicide.

Communist Party of Nepal

The Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist), also known as CPN-UML, CPN(UML), is one of the largest communist parties in Nepal. It was created on January 6, 1991 through the unification of the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist) and the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist). CPN (UML) was a product of the Jana Andolan (People's Movement) uprising where communists, together with the Nepali Congress, played a major role in the installment of a constitutional democracy in Nepal.

History

The fifth party congress (and the first one after the unification, the four first being of the original Communist Party of Nepal) was held in Kathmandu in January 1993. People's Multiparty Democracy was adopted as the party programme. Madan Bhandari was elected General Secretary and Man Mohan Adhikari was elected Chairman. Later the same year Bhandari died in a vehicle incident at Dashdhunga in Chitwan. After Bhandari's death, Madhav Kumar Nepal was elected General Secretary, and he remained in post until 2008.

In December 1994, CPN(UML) formed a minority government, which lasted nine months. Man Mohan Adhikari was elected Prime Minister and Madhav Kumar Nepal became Minister of Foreign Affairs. In 1997, CPN(UML) participated in a non-Nepali Congress government, with a faction of the Rashtriya Prajatantra Party and the Nepal Sadbhavana Party, and held the Deputy Prime Ministership.

In March 1998, CPN(UML) suffered a severe split over the Mahakali Treaty treaty with India. Those opposing the treaty broke away and formed Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) led by Bam Dev Gautam. The vertical split caused much harm to the party; in the 1999 parliamentary election, CPN(UML) merely got 31.61% of the votes whereas the rival faction only secured 5% of total votes.

On February 15, 2002, CPN(UML) and CPN(ML) were reunited. Following the merger, CPN(ML) leaders Sahana Pradhan, Bamdev Gautam and Radha Krishna Mainali were nominated to the standing committee of CPN(UML). Siddhilal Singh, Ashok Rai, Trilochan Dhakal, Kiran Gurung, Gopal Sakya, Kamal Cholagai, Rajendra Shrestha and Sitananda Raya were appointed full members of the central committee. Kamal Koirala, Hemraj Rai and Yogendra Shas were appointe alternative central committee members.

The 7th general convention of CPN(UML) was held in Janakpur, February 1-February 6, 2003. The convention decided to abolish the post of party chair, a post vacant after the death of Manmohan Adhikari. Madhav Kumar Nepal was re-elected unopposed as General Secretary of the party. The convention elected a Central Committee consisting of Ashok Rai, Jhala Nath Khanal, Bharat Mohan Adhikari, Sahana Pradhan, Madhav Kumar Nepal, Subhas Nembang, Modnath Prashrit, Krishna Gopal Shrestha, Amrit Kumar Bohara, Pradeep Nepal, Bam Dev Gautam, Yuvraj Gyawali, Rajendra Pandey, Bidhya Devi Bhandari, Astha Laxmi Shakya, Keshab Prasad Badal, K.P. Sharma Oli, Shankhar Pokhrel, Radha Krishna Mainali, Pradeep Gyawali, Ishwor Pokhrel, Kashinath Adhikari, Bishnu Poudel, Siddhi Lal Singh, Mukund Neupane, Shanta Manavi, Surendra Pandey, Rajendra Shrestha, Kiran Gurung, Yuv Raj Karki and Raghu Pant, Suresh Karki, Bhim Rawal, Dhanendra Basnet, Hem Raj Rai, Bishnu Rimal, Trilochan Dhakal, Bhim Acharya, Kedar Neupane, Urbadutta Pant, Govinda Prasad Koirala, Gopal Shakya and Ramchandra Jha. 12 alternate members of the Central Committee were also elected: Chabbi Lal Biswokarma, Tul Bahadur Gurung, Urmila Aryal, Rakam Chemjong, Pashupati Chaulagain, Gokarna Bista, Prakash Jwala, Mahendra Pandey, Naresh Kharel, Ratneswore Goit, Puruswottam Poudel and Ramji Sharma.

When King Gyanendra in 2003 dissolved parliament and sacked Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba, CPN(UML) took a leading part in the formation of the 5-parties protest movement. However, once Deuba had been reinstalled as Prime Minister, CPN(UML) joined the provisional government. This government was dissolved by Gyanendra in 19th Magh of the same year. In 2006, CPN (UML) was a major part of the Seven Party Alliance and the Loktantra Andolan.

Organization

The party's organizational structure was destroyed during the Cultural Revolution and rebuilt afterwards by Deng Xiaoping, who subsequently initiated "Socialism with Chinese characteristics" and brought all state apparatuses back under the control of the CPC.

Theoretically, the party's highest body is the National Congress of the Communist Party of China, which meets at least once every five years. The primary organization of power in the Communist Party which is detailed in the party constitution include:

Central Committee, which includes:

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  The Politburo Standing Committee, which currently consists of nine members; see current members of the Politburo Standing Committee for a complete list.
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  The Politburo, consisting of 24 full members (including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee) and one alternate; see current members of the Politburo for a complete list.
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  The Secretariat, the principal administrative mechanism of the CPC, headed by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China;
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  The Central Military Commission (a parallel organization of the government institution of the same name);
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  The Central Discipline Inspection Commission, which is directly under the National Congress and on the same level with the Central Committee, charged with rooting out corruption and malfeasance among party cadres.

Other central organizations include:

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  General Office
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  Central Organization Department;
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  Propaganda Department
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  International Liaison Department; and
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  United Front Department

In addition, there are numerous commissions and leading groups, the most important of which are:

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  Central Political and Legislative Affairs Committee
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  Work Committee for Organs under the Central Committee
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  Work Committee for Central Government Organs
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  Central Financial and Economic Leading Group
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  Central Leading Group for Rural Work
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  Central Leading Group for Party Building
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  Central Foreign Affairs Leading Group
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  Central Taiwan Affairs Leading Group
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  Commission for Protection of Party Secrets
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  Leading Group for State Security
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  Party History Research Centre
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  Party Research Center

Central Party School

Every five years, the Communist Party of China holds a National Congress. The latest happened on October 19, 2005. Formally, the Congress serves two functions: to approve changes to the Party constitution regarding policy and to elect a Central Committee, about 300 strong. The Central Committee in turn elects the Politburo. In practice, positions within the Central Committee and Politburo are determined before a Party Congress, and the main purpose of the Congress is to announce the party policies and vision for the direction of China in the following few years.

The party's central focus of power is the Politburo Standing Committee. The process for selecting Standing Committee members, as well as Politburo members, occurs behind the scenes in a process parallel to the National Congress. The new power structure is announced obliquely through the positioning of portraits in the People's Daily, the official newspaper of the Party. The number of Standing Committee members varies and has tended to increase over time. The Committee was expanded to nine at the 16th Party National Congress in 2009.

There are two other key organs of political power in the People's Republic of China: the formal government and the People's Liberation Army.

There are, in addition to decision-making roles, advisory committees, including the People's Political Consultative Conference. During the 1980s and 1990s there was a Central Advisory Commission established by Deng Xiaoping which consisted of senior retired leaders, but with their passing this has been abolished since 1990.

Communist Party of China

The Communist Party of China (CPC), also known as the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), is the founding and the ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and is one of the world's largest political parties. (Its rival in size is the Democratic Party of the United States.)

While not a governing body recognized by the PRC's constitution, the CPC's position as the supreme political authority and power in the PRC is realized through its control of all state apparatuses and of the legislative process.

The Communist Party of China was founded in May 1920 in Shanghai, and came to rule all of mainland China after defeating its rival the Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War. The CPC claimed 73.36 million members on 9 October 2007 which constitutes 5% of the total population of mainland China